Cayuga Spelling Manual

January 2007 version

Carrie Dyck and Alfred Keye

Acknowledgements

Special thanks are extended to the following people and groups for their advice on this spelling manual.

Alfred Keye for the sound bites and comments.

Lottie Keye, Frances Froman, and Amos Key, Jr. for many constructive comments.

Marianne Mithun and the late Reg Henry; this manual is based on their description of the Cayuga spelling system.

Participants of the 2005 spelling workshops held at the Woodland Cultural Centre; in particular, thanks to Tom and Tracy Deer.

This manual is made possible by SSHRC funding (grant #856-2004-1082). See the grant web page at http://www.mun.ca/~cayuga

Nyá:węh.

About this version of the spelling manual

This spelling manual is a revised and expanded version of the description originally occurring in:

Mithun, Marianne and Reg Henry. 1984. Watewayęstanih. A Cayuga teaching grammar. Brantford, Ontario: Woodland Indian Cultural Educational Centre.

This version of the spelling manual has been modified for the Henry orthography, and takes into account many comments provided by Cayuga speakers during spelling workshops that took place in the summer of 2005.

This version of the Cayuga spelling manual is also in html format. You can either print up the manual, or you can view it on your computer. The advantage of viewing it on your computer is that you can also listen to many of the example Cayuga words.

If you’re using this manual on your computer, you can e-mail Carrie Dyck with any comments. If you’re connected to the internet, just click on the following link: cdyck@mun.ca.

How to see and hear this manual

The Cayuga and IPA letters in this manual are displayed in unicode, and the sounds are played with Macromedia's Flash Player. In order to see and hear things right, you may need to do some fiddling around with your computer. Please consult with your resident computer expert, or check out this instruction page.

The Henry Orthography

The Henry orthography was created by the late Reg Henry (Sagohędéhta⁷).

(The first sound in Reg Henry’s name is an aspirated < s >, which sounds like an < s > followed by an < h >. In the linguistic orthography, Reg’s name would be spelled Shakohętéhtha⁷.)

Reg was a fluent speaker of Cayuga, Onondaga, and English (among other languages), and was also a natural linguist.

The Henry orthography is widely used by Cayuga speakers at Six Nations. There is also a linguistic writing system, which is used in academic articles.

Example (1) shows the main differences between the Henry and linguistic writing systems.

(1) The Henry and linguistic orthographies compared

Henry

Linguistic

t

th

d

t

k

kh

g

k

s

sh

ts

tsh

j

ts, tsy

At the end of words, both writing systems use < t > or < k >, but not < th > or < kh >.

If you’re familiar with other writing systems, you’ll notice that the linguistic orthography has a lot in common with the Mohawk and Oneida writing systems, as the examples in (2) show.

(2) Comparison of writing systems

Henry

Linguistic

Mohawk

 

to:

tho:

e⁷ tho

that, there

do:

to:

to

how

Some background notes about this manual

Sometimes, it is necessary to make a distinction between letters (or written symbols) and how they are pronounced. For this reason, letters in the Henry orthography will be written between angle brackets; for example, < d > means ‘the written letter D in the Henry orthography’. In contrast, to describe the exact pronunciation of a letter, symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) will used; the letters from the IPA will be written between square brackets; for example, [ ɑ ] stands for ‘the vowel sound in lawn’.

If you want to learn more about the IPA, you can go to the following website, which has interactive charts: http://www.paulmeier.com/ipa/charts.html. Or you can go to the website of the International Phonetic Association, which also has interactive charts and sound files illustrating what the letters of the IPA sound like: http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ipa.html.

Cayuga Letters

In this section, you’ll find an overview of the letters and pronunciation markers used in the Henry orthography. In later sections, the pronunciation of each letter is described in greater detail.

The Cayuga vowel letters are listed in (3), and common vowel combinations are shown in (4).

(3) Vowels

            i                       u

            e, ę                   o, ǫ

            a

(4) Common vowel combinations

         ai, ae, aę, ao, aǫ, ea, ei, ęi, ęǫ ie, ię, iǫ, ia, oę, oi, ǫi

Vowels can be modified by two pronunciation markers or diacritics, which are shown in (5).

(5) Vowel pronunciation markers or diacritics

Diacritic

Example

Name

´

é

acute accent (sometimes also called a stress marker, or stress point)

:

e:

lengthener

_

underlining (for devoiced or whispered vowels)

And finally, the Cayuga consonants are listed in (6).

(6) Consonants

            t,d                    k,g       ⁷ (glottal stop)

            s                                  h

            ts,j

            n

            r

            w         y

Rules for pronouncing the Cayuga letters are provided in the following sections. If you’re using the CD or web version of this manual, you can click on any word with a button beside it to hear what it sounds like.

Cayuga vowel sounds

Cayuga vowels can occur alone (see example 3) or in vowel combinations (as in 4). When they are alone, each Cayuga vowel has one main pronunciation. The main pronunciation for each vowel is described below.

Single vowels

a  [ ɑ ] sounds like the < a > in father

            sgat.mp3 sga:t one

            ahak.mp3 aha:k he ate it

            dasha.mp3 dasha: pass it here

e  [ e ]  sounds like the < e > in hey, or like the < ay > in way, say

            e.mp3 é:⁷ again

            ehswe.mp3 ehswe:⁷ you all thought

i  [ i ]   sounds like the < i > in police, or like the < ea > in eat

            i.mp3 i:⁷ I, myself

            iwi.mp3 í:wi: I want

o  [ o ] sounds like the < o > in so, or like the < oa > in boat

            o.mp3 ó: oh

            onen.mp3 ó:nęh now

u  [ u ] sounds like the < u > in blue, or like the < oo > in boot

            The [ u ] sound is rare; you are likely to hear it in just two words:

            niwuuh.mp3 niwú:⁷uh it is small

            niwudrugyeah.mp3 niwu⁷drugyé:⁷ah it is narrow

However, there’s another case where you’ll hear a [ u ] sound: some people pronounce the following words with a [ u ] sound, while other people use an [ o ] sound instead. (Perhaps this is the Cayuga version of “You say ‘tomAYto’, I say ‘tomAHto’”)

         swanotsageh.mp3 swanó⁷j⁷ageh, swanutsageh.mp3 swanú⁷j⁷ageh on your (p) teeth

         swayotshageh.mp3 swayo⁷tsá⁷geh, swayutshageh.mp3 swayu⁷tsá⁷geh on your (p) chins

         dagos.mp3 dago:s, dagus.mp3 dagu:s cat ('dagu:s' is the preferred way to say this word)

         gonhe.mp3 gonhe⁷ gunhe.mp3 gunhe⁷ I am alive

 

Cayuga also has two nasal vowels. The nasal vowels can sound fairly different, depending on who is speaking.

ę  [ ɛ̃ ] some speakers pronounce < ę > like the < e > in English encounter, men; or like the nasal vowel sound in French frein brake.

ę [ ʌ̃ ] other speakers pronounce < ę > more like the < o > in English money or like the < u > in English pun.

            enhen.mp3 ęhę́:⁷ yes

            gens.mp3 gę́:s generally

ǫ  [ õ ] some speakers pronounce < ǫ> like the < o > in English known, or like the nasal vowel sound in French don gift.

ǫ  [ ũ ] other speakers pronounce < ǫ> more like the < oo > in English noon.

            ondonh.mp3 ǫ́:dǫh she is saying

            sonde.mp3 sǫ́:de⁷ last night

ę:, ǫ:   After long < ę:> and < ǫ: >, you might sometimes hear an [ n ]-like sound; the sound is especially obvious when the nasal vowels are before < t, d, k, g, ts, j >. For example, the word < nę:dah >here, take it! can sound a little bit like [ nę:ndah ] nendah.mp3 , and ęjéhęhs birthdays can sound a little bit like [ęnjéhęhs] enjehehs.mp3.

            In contrast, you don’t usually hear the same [ n ]-like sound when < ę > and < ǫ > are short.

a  [ ɑ̃ ] There is one nasal vowel in Cayuga that doesn’t have a special spelling because it is only heard in a few words. You can hear this sound in the word hwa⁷ (as in the phrase nehwan.mp3 ne⁷ hwa⁷ this one this time, this one next).

Vowels in combination

When vowels are combined, they can sound different from the way they sound when they are alone. For example, both < i > and < e > sound nearly the same in the < ai > and < ae > vowel combinations: they sound like [ ae ].

(7) < ai > and < ae > sound nearly the same

ai hehshai.mp3

héhshai: fox

áe dakshaedohs.mp3

daksáe⁷dohs chicken

(The first < s > in daksáe⁷dohs stands for two sounds, [ s ] followed by [ h ].)

Here are some more notes on how other vowel combinations are pronounced:

First, there is an < i > sound in the following vowel combinations, < ei> and < ęi >. (It might be hard to hear the but it’s there!)

(8) Listen for the < i > sound

ei eigowah.mp3

ei⁷gó:wah cherry

ęi ayetshei.mp3

a:yetsę́i⁷ she might find it

(The first < s > in a:yetsę́i⁷ stands for two sounds, [ s ] followed by [ h ].)

Next, some speakers use an < aǫ> vowel combination, while others use an < ęǫ > combination instead:

(9) < aǫ> or < ęǫ >

aǫ, ęǫ atenao.mp3

atę́naǫ⁷, atę́nęǫ⁷ they (males) raced

As well, some speakers say < iǫ> where others would say < iaǫ>. Similarly, some speakers say
< ię > while others would say < iaę>.

(10) Adding an < a > sound between two vowels

iǫ, iaǫ hadiyaohyagehono.mp3

hadiaǫhya⁷ge̲hǫ̨́:nǫ⁷ they (males) are the heavenly kind

ię, iáę godiaena.mp3

godiáęna⁷ their song (females or mixed group)

Finally, the following word is spelled < teá:ǫt > in the Cayuga Thematic Dictionary (Henry and Henry 1984). However, it is also pronounced as tí:aǫ:t.

(11) Muskrats

í:a tiaot.mp3

tí:aǫ:t, teá:ǫt muskrat

The remaining vowel combinations are relatively straightforward: they are pronounced as they are spelled. However, if the second < ę > or < i > is unaccented, it can sound a bit more like a
[ y ] sound.

(12) Other vowel combinations

áo gwao.mp3

gwáoh screech owl

áę gaena.mp3

gáęna⁷ song

áǫ gaoda.mp3

gáǫda⁷ log

hoihode.mp3

hoího⁷de⁷ he’s working

ǫi egoihwehde.mp3

ęgǫihwę́hdę⁷ I will give you a significant message

deyoehdahsta.mp3

deyoęhdá:hstá⁷ (ahdáhgwa⁷) running (shoe)

Long versus short vowels

Long vowels take about twice as long to pronounce as short vowels. Long vowels are followed by a pronunciation marker called a lengthener (or colon).

In Cayuga the difference between long and short vowels is very important; in fact, sometimes length alone makes a difference in the meaning of a word (13).

(13) Vowel length can make a difference in meaning

< e >

ha⁷se⁷ you are going

< e: >

ha⁷se:⁷ you went

< a >

oyę⁷gwa⁷ tobacco

< a: >

oyę⁷gwa:⁷ smoke

Here are a few more remarks about long vowels.

As mentioned earlier, after long < ę⁷ > and < ǫ: >, you can sometimes hear an [ n ]-like sound; it is especially obvious when the nasal vowels are before < t, d, k, g, ts, j >. For example, the word < nę́:dah >here, take it! can sound a little bit like [ nę́:ndah ] nendah.mp3.

Cayuga speakers also like to write a lengthener after vowel combinations, such as after < ae > in the following example. This makes sense, since vowel combinations are twice as long as a single vowel.

            satgonhsohae.mp3 satgǫhso̲háe: wash your face!

Finally, long vowels are often accented. (Of course, the words presented earlier in example 13 are exceptions to this statement!) Section §9 describes the conditions under which accented vowels can be long.

Consonants

Cayuga consonants usually have two main pronunciations each; for example < d > can sound like [ d ] before regular vowels, but it can also sound like [ t ] before whispered vowels. The main pronunciation rules for consonants are described in this section. Section §8 provides details about when to expect pronunciations that are different from the spelling.

d          sounds like [ d ] in dad before some consonants and before regular (voiced) vowels:

            drena.mp3 drę́:na: skunk

            doga.mp3 do:gá⁷ I don’t know

d          sounds like [ t ] before whispered (devoiced) vowels:

            dehadihkwa.mp3 de̲hadí:hwa̲hkwa⁷ choir         

            There are no < d >’s word-finally: you will see < t >’s instead:

            grahet.mp3 gra̲he:t tree

t           sounds like [ t ] in take

            saton.mp3 sá:tǫ: lie down!

            sahsnenht.mp3 sahsnęht get down!

g          sounds like hard [ g ] before some consonants and before regular (voiced) vowels:

            degron_final_stress.mp3 degrǫ⁷ eight

            agi.mp3 agi⁷ I said

g          sounds like [ k ] before whispered (devoiced) vowels (even if there's a consonant between the < g > and the devoiced vowel:

           gahsonhwahda.mp3 ga̲hsǫ́wa̲hda⁷ wire; nail; needle

            grahet.mp3 gra̲he:t tree

            There are no < g >’s word-finally: you will see < k >’s instead:

            ahak.mp3 aha:k he ate it

k          sounds like the [ k ] in king.

            knoha.mp3 knó:ha⁷ my mother

            odeka.mp3 odé:ka⁷ it is burning

s          sounds like the < sh > [ ʃ ] in shirt when it is before < y > or < r >:

            sahsyon.mp3 sa̲hsyǫ⁷ you returned (it is hard to hear the first syllable < sa̲ > in this word)

            enhsren.mp3 ęhsrę⁷ you will set it on something

s          sounds like the [ s ] in sing almost everywhere else:

           sowas.mp3 só:wa:s dog

           sgeno.mp3 sgę́:nǫ⁷ hello

s          might sound like a [ z ] in some words, especially when the < s > is between vowels. However, the following word is a counterexample:

            iso.mp3 í:so⁷ many, lots

h          sounds like [ h ] in hello.

            knoha.mp3 knó:ha⁷ my mother

            hahdos.mp3 hahdo:s he dives

h          is an important consonant in Cayuga, and it’s important to pronounce any < h >’s you see in the Cayuga spelling. Notice, for example, that Cayuga can have an < h > sound at the end of a word, as in shę́h how shenh.mp3. In contrast, English never has an < h > sound at the end of the word.

            For a more detailed description of pronunciation changes involving syllables with < h >, see §8.4 and §8.5

sh        is a bit complicated. First, let’s talk about what < sh > does not sound like: in English, the < sh > spelling stands for the first sound in the word shirt; in contrast, the < sh > spelling never stands for this sound in Cayuga.

sh        Next, let’s talk about the linguistic orthography. (Recall from §3 that the linguistic orthography for Cayuga is a bit different from the Henry orthography.) The linguistic orthography has an < sh > spelling. It sounds like an [ s ] followed by an [ h ], as in the phrase less heat. For example, the following two words are spelled the linguistic way.

            shenh.mp3 shę́h how (This word is also written as tsę́h, in which case it is pronounced as [ tshę́h ].)

            shehowih.mp3 shehó:wi: tell her

s          In contrast, the same sounds — the [ s ] sound followed by the [ h ] sound — are often just spelled with an < s > in the Henry orthography. The following two words are spelled the ‘Henry way.’

            shenh.mp3 sę́h how

           shehowih.mp3 sehó:wi: tell her

            As you can see, the Henry orthography has no way to spell the difference between a plain [ s ] sound and the sounds [ s ] followed [ h ]. This isn’t a bad thing, but if you’re trying to sound out a Cayuga word that is spelled the Henry way, you will have to get a speaker to pronounce the word for you so that you can tell whether to pronounce just an [ s ], or an [ s ] followed by an [ h ].

j           can sound like the < j > [ dʒ ] in judge, or like the soft < g > in Gerald, especially before the vowels < i > and < e >; it can also sound like the [ dz ] sound in adze or the < ds > in leads, especially before the vowels < a > and < o >. However, speakers will also use either one of the two < j > sounds with no difference in meaning. (Maybe this is another ‘tomAYto — tomAHto’ difference.)

            onajagent.mp3 onajagę́:t rice

            enjehehs.mp3 ęjéhehs birthdays

            enhsnajodenh.mp3 ęhsna⁷jó:dę⁷ you will boil something

j           can sound like the < ch > [ tʃ ] in church, or like the < ts > in cats before whispered vowels:

            johsidat.mp3 jo̲hsí⁷da:t one

            johsrat.mp3 jo̲hsra:t one year

ts         is the spelling for three consonants, [ t ], [ s ], and [ h ], as in the phrase let’s hit.

            gaditshenen.mp3 gadi:tsé:nę⁷ farm animals

            tshisedehjih.mp3 tsiséde̲hjih earlier this morning

n          sounds like the [ n ] in nod.

            nee.mp3 ne:⁷ it is that

            inonh.mp3 í:nǫh it is far

n          sounds like the < n > [ n̥ ] in snore before < h > or whispered vowels:

            gonhe.mp3 gǫnhe⁷ I am alive

            deganonhsage.mp3 deganǫ̲hsá:ge: two houses

r          [ ɹ ] sounds like the [ r ] in unrest, drain, or grow:

            onrahda.mp3 onráhda⁷ leaf

            gwadre.mp3 gwadre:⁷ my grandchild

            ogra.mp3 o⁷gra⁷ snow; snowflake

r           sounds like the < r > [ ɹ̥ ] in train in the < tr > spelling, or when < dr > is before a whispered vowel:

            atriht.mp3 atriht you broke

            henodrahta.mp3 hęnódra̲hta⁷ they (m) sprinkle on

r           sounds like the < r > [ ɹ̥ ] in creek in the < kr > spelling, or when < gr > is before a whispered vowel:

            enkrenh.mp3 ękrę⁷ I will set it

            grahet.mp3 gra̲he:t tree

w         sounds like the [ w ] in wash:

            wane.mp3 wa⁷ne:⁷ today

            onwi.mp3 ǫ́:wi: I think so

w         sounds like the < w > [ w̥ ] in swish, or like the sound you make when you blow out a candle, before whispered vowels:

            wahsen.mp3 wa̲hshę: ten

            niyowihsdae.mp3 niyohwi̲hsdá⁷e: o’clock

hw       sounds like < h > followed by < w > (the same sounds you hear at the beginning of words such as what and which in some varieties of British English):

            hwihs.mp3 hwihs five

            ganehwa.mp3 ganéhwa⁷ hide; animal skin

y          sounds like the < y > in yes:

            iyen.mp3 í:yę: she wants, wishes

            oya.mp3 ó:ya⁷ other

y          sounds like the < y > [ j̥ ] in the expression ‘Can I help you?’ or like the [ y ] before the ‘oo’ sound in English pure or cure, when it’s before whispered vowels.

            gyohdon.mp3 gyo̲hdǫ: nine

            den_nihsagyeha.mp3 dę⁷ ni̲hságye̲ha⁷? what are you doing?

hy        sounds like [ h ] followed by [ y ]. You can also hear these sounds before the ‘oo’ sound in English human or humour in some types of English:

            hyei.mp3 hyéi:⁷ six

            ohya_no_stress.mp3 ohya⁷ fruit, berries

⁷           is the glottal stop [ ʔ ] (some people call this a slow marker). This sound can be heard in English before the vowels in the words uh-uh (meaning no) and oh-oh (meaning oops), but English does not spell the glottal stop. When you pronounce a glottal stop, you might be able to feel the vocal folds deliberately closing in your Adam’s apple.

            hanih.mp3 ha⁷nih my father

            onoa.mp3 onǫ́⁷a:⁷ a head

⁷           In Cayuga, the glottal stop is as important as any other consonant; for example, it can make the difference between a statement and a command:

            satgonhsohae.mp3 satgǫhso̲háe: wash your face! (command; no glottal stop at the end)

            ahsatgonhsohae.mp3 asatgǫhsóhae:⁷ you have washed your face (statement; ends with a glottal stop)

            Another language that uses glottal stop for a consonant is Hawai’ian.

A more detailed description of pronunciation changes involving syllables with glottal stop can be found in the following sections.

Syllables with h or glottal stop

Syllables ending with < h > or glottal stop < ⁷ > can sound quite different from the way they are spelled. Syllables ending with < h > can be whispered, while syllables ending with < ⁷ > can undergo several types of pronunciation changes — to give one example, the glottal stop < ⁷ > sound can disappear in such syllables.

In order to describe the sound changes, the next section describes what a syllable is. Then, the following section describes where you can expect to hear syllables that are pronounced differently from the way they are spelled. Finally, the remaining sections provide examples of how syllables with < h > or glottal stop < ⁷ > are spelled and pronounced.

What is a syllable?

A syllable always contains a vowel, and can (but don’t have to) begin or end with a consonant (or two). Example (14) lists some of the most common syllables of Cayuga.

(14) Common Cayuga syllables


i

e

a

o

u

ę

di

de

da

do

du

dǫ

gi

ge

ga

go

gu

gǫ

hi

he

ha

ho

hu

hl

ji

je

ja

jo

ju

jǫ

ki

ke

ka

ko

ku

kǫ

ni

ne

na

no

nu

nǫ

ri

re

ra

ro

ru

rǫ

si

se

sa

so

su

sǫ

ti

te

ta

to

tu

tǫ

wi

we

wa

wo

wu

wǫ

yi

ye

ya

yo

yu

yǫ

⁷i

⁷e

⁷a

⁷o

⁷u

⁷ę

⁷ǫ

dri

dre

dra

dro

dru

drę

drǫ

gri

gre

gra

gro

gru

grę

grǫ

kri

kre

kra

kro

kru

krę

krǫ

nri

nre

nra

nro

nru

nrę

nrǫ

sri

sre

sra

sro

sru

srę

srǫ

tri

tre

tra

tro

tru

trę

trǫ

dwi

dwe

dwa

dwo

dwu

dwę

dwǫ

gwi

gwe

gwa

gwo

gwu

gwę

gwǫ

kwi

kwe

kwa

kwo

kwu

kwę

kwǫ

nwi

nwe

nwa

nwo

nwu

nwę

nwǫ

swi

swe

swa

swo

swu

swę

swǫ

twi

twe

twa

two

twu

twę

twǫ

dyi

dye

dya

dyo

dyu

dyę

dyǫ

gyi

gye

gya

gyo

gyu

gyę

gyǫ

kyi

kye

kya

kyo

kyu

kyę

kyǫ

nyi

nye

nya

nyo

nyu

nyę

nyǫ

syi

sye

sya

syo

syu

syę

syǫ

sdi

sde

sda

sdo

sdu

sdę

sdǫ

sti

ste

sta

sto

stu

stę

stǫ

sgi

sge

sga

sgo

sgu

sgę

sgǫ

ski

ske

ska

sko

sku

skę

skǫ

shi

she

sha

sho

shu

shę

shǫ

sni

sne

sna

sno

snu

snę

snǫá

sgri

sgre

sgra

sgro

sgru

sgrę

sgrǫ

sgwi

sgwe

sgwa

sgwo

sgwu

sgwę

sgwǫ

sgyi

sgye

sgya

sgyo

sgyu

sgyę

sgyǫ

tsi

tse

tsa

tso

tsu

tsę

tsǫ


Cayuga has many more syllables than the ones listed in (14): for one thing, the table in (14) doesn’t list any syllables ending with a consonant. You can add almost any consonant to the syllables listed in (14) in order to create more syllables. For example, you can create syllables such as < da⁷>, < dah >, < dak >, < dahs >, < dat >, or < dan > by adding consonants to end of the syllable < da >. (Any syllable ending with an < n >, such as < dan >, will always be followed by an < r > or by a < y >.)

When do syllables sound different from the way they are spelled?

Syllables can (but might not) sound different from the way they are spelled if all three of the following conditions are met:

    -the syllable ends with < h > or glottal stop < ⁷ >and

    -the syllable is not accented and

    -the syllable is ‘odd-numbered’. To find out if it is odd-numbered, count from the beginning of the word: the first, third, fifth, etc. syllable is odd-numbered.

Even if the above conditions are true, there are regular exceptions — cases where the syllable still sounds just the way it is spelled:

    -The last syllable of the word always sounds the way it is spelled, even if it is odd-numbered.

    -A syllable that begins with < h > or glottal stop < ⁷ > sounds just the way it is spelled (even if it ends with < h > or glottal stop …)

    -If the first syllable of the word begins with a vowel, it sounds just the way it is spelled (even if it ends with < h > or glottal stop…)

The Henry orthography has a way of ‘warning’ the reader that a syllable is pronounced differently than it is spelled: for syllables ending in < h >, the vowel is underlined; for syllables ending with glottal stop < ⁷ >, the glottal stop is either deleted or moved leftwards when spelling words: Cayuga speakers tend to delete the glottal stop < ⁷ >, and linguists tend to move it instead, but these aren’t hard-and-fast rules.

The pronunciation changes described in the following section are collectively known to linguists as ‘Laryngeal Metathesis’. A more technical description of Laryngeal Metathesis can be found in this article:

Foster, Michael.  1982.  Alternating weak and strong syllables in Cayuga words.  International Journal of American Linguistics 48, 1:59-72.

Examples (and other exceptions) are provided in following sections.

Why do syllables sometimes sound different from the way they are spelled?

Sometimes syllables such as < dǫ̲h > or < de̲h > can sound just like a [ t ] (an example where < de̲h > sounds like a [ t ] is shown in 15): the spelling is quite different from the pronunciation! The reason why the spelling is so different from the pronunciation lies in the meaning:

(15) Spelling and meaning

      de̲hęnáǫha⁷ they (males only) are racing

      degęnáǫha⁷ they (animals) are racers

Pairs of words like de̲hęnáǫha⁷ and degęnáǫha⁷ in (15) are related in the sense that they have very similar meanings. The Henry orthography, like other writing systems, obeys the following rule of thumb:

(16) Words (or parts of words) that are nearly identical in meaning have very similar spellings.

One advantage of the rule of thumb in (16) is that it makes it easier to ‘see’ the parts of the word. To illustrate, compare examples (17) and (18). (The terms ‘phonemic’ and ‘phonetic’ have been added for those of you who have a linguistics background.) The words in (17) are spelled in a more meaning-based way, while the words in (18) are spelled more like they are pronounced.

(17) Meaning-based spelling (more phonemic)

            de̲-hęn-áǫha⁷              de-gęn-áǫha⁷             

(18) Sound-based spelling (more phonetic)

            t-ęn-áǫha⁷                   de-gęn-aǫha⁷

Notice that it’s fairly easy to figure out the parts of the word in (17) from the spelling, but it’s not so obvious in (18). In (17), the de- and -aǫha⁷ parts together mean ‘are racing’; the -hęn- part means ‘they (males only)’ and the -gęn- part means ‘they (animals).’ In (18), it’s harder to see the part of the word that means ‘they (males only)’.

There are advantages to both ways of spelling. Reg Henry designed the spelling system so that it reflected the meaning more than the pronunciation.

More details on the pronunciation of syllables with an < h > or with a glottal stop < ⁷ > are provided in the following sections.

Syllables ending with h

To get an idea about what kinds of pronunciation changes can affect syllables ending with < h >, here are some examples of whispered and regular syllables. (You can listen to these if you’re using the html version of this manual on your computer. Listen especially to the bolded syllables.)

(19) Whispered and regular syllables, compared

whispered

sounds like

regular

ehyádǫ̲hkwa⁷ pencil ehyadohkwa.mp3

ehyátkwa⁷

ehyá:dǫh she writes ehyadoh.mp3

de̲hęnáǫha⁷ they (m) race dehenaoha.mp3

tęnáǫha⁷

degęnáǫha⁷ they (animals) are racers degenaoha.mp3

gǫ̲hswáhęhs I hate you gohswahehs.mp3

khswáhęhs

gǫnǫ́hwe⁷s I like you gonohwes.mp3

sa̲hsgá:ne:s you long for something sahsganes.mp3

sgá:ne:s

hahsgá:ne:s he longs for something hahsganes.mp3

After you have compared the whispered and regular syllables, you will notice that in the whispered syllables:

    -Whispered syllables can sound just like single a consonant (as in de̲hęnáǫha⁷ or ehyádǫ̲hkwa⁷). For example, the syllables < de̲h > and  < dǫh > can sound just like a
[ t ].

    -Regular < g > can sound like < k > when it’s whispered (as in gǫ̲hswáhęhs).

    -Regular < d > can sound like < t > when it’s whispered (as in ehyádǫ̲hkwa⁷).

    -The < h > disappears as a separate sound in whispered syllables (as in ehyádǫ̲hkwa⁷).

    -Particularly at the beginning of the word, it can be hard to even hear a whispered syllable (as in sa̲hsgá:ne:s).

You can see that whispered syllables often sound very different from the way they are spelled. Some particularly difficult cases are described in the next section.

Two vowels with an < h > in between

The pronunciation of two vowels with an < h > in between is quite different from the spelling, particularly when the first vowel is whispered. In fact, two vowels with an < h > in between can often sound more like a single vowel than two.

The words in the following examples were chosen to help you focus in on the pronunciation of vowels with an < h > in between. If you are using the html version of this manual, you can click on the buttons in order to hear the words.

The words in (20) illustrate the pronunciation of whispered < i̲h > and < e̲h >. The words in the first column in (20) have a whispered syllable followed by a regular one (in bold). In contrast, the words in last the column in (20) have two regular syllables in bold. The words in the middle column are the same as the words in the first column, except that the words in the middle column are spelled more like they are pronounced.  Notice that whispered i̲h and e̲h can sound like a whispered ‘y’ (as in niyokde̲hú:⁷uh). (You can also hear a whispered ‘y’ sound after the ‘f’ in fjord, after the ‘c’ in cure, or after the ‘p’ in pure; however, the ‘y’ sound isn’t spelled out in cure and pure.)

(For the words marked with an asterisk, the accent placement is an exception to the rules described in a later section.

(20) Comparison of whispered < îh, éh > and regular < ih, eh >

a whispered syllable plus < h > plus a regular syllable

sounds like

for comparision: a regular syllable plus < h > plus another regular syllable

gi̲hé:yǫhs I am dying giheyohs.mp3

kyé:yǫhs

ęgíhe:⁷ I will die egihe.mp3

gadíhsi̲ha:⁷ they are congregated gadisiha.mp3

gadíhshya:⁷

hadihá:wi⁷s* they carry along hadihawis.mp3

agadri̲hó⁷da:t I worked agadrihodat.mp3

agatrio⁷da:t

ęgaǫdrího⁷da:t they (f/m) are going to work egaodrihodat.mp3

ni̲hú:⁷uh he is small nihuuh.mp3

nhyú:⁷uh

nigihú:⁷uh a small stream nigihuuh.mp3

agę́ni̲hę⁷ I stopped, quit agenihe.mp3

agę́nhyę:⁷

sęní:hę: quit! senihe.mp3

honadri̲hǫ́:dǫ⁷ they (m) are agents honadrihodo.mp3

honatriǫ́:dǫ⁷

ni̲hǫwáihǫ:t he has appointed him nihowaihot.mp3

de̲henagya:dá:dǫhs a circus dehenagyadadohs.mp3

tenagya:dá:dǫhs

ęknége̲ha⁷ I will drink it eknegeha.mp3

ęknékya⁷

snegéhah drink it! snegeha.mp3

hadihǫwa⁷ge̲hó:nǫ⁷ sailors, etc. hadihowagehono.mp3

hadihǫwa⁷kyó:nǫ⁷

hahędagehó:nǫ⁷ farmer hahedagehono.mp3

niyokde̲hú:⁷uh small root niyokdehuuh.mp3

niyoktyú:⁷uh

ęgáde̲hęh I will be embarrassed egadeheh.mp3

ęgátyęh

gadéhęhs I am embarrassed, ashamed gadehehs.mp3

ęhsátge̲hǫ:⁷ you will sell esatgeho.mp3

ęhsátkyǫ:⁷

hatgéhǫha⁷ he is an auctioneer hatgehoha.mp3

The words in (21) illustrate the pronunciation of whispered < √h >. The main thing to notice here is that the whispered syllables can just sound like a single consonant (as in deyagwi̲hsragę̲hé:yǫ: and howęhgę̲hę:⁷). Also note that < j > can sound like a ‘ch’ [ tʃ ] (as in sadejęhí:yohs), < g > like a [ k ] (as in howę́hgę̲hę:⁷), and < d > like  [ t ] (as in degahsdęhodá:gye⁷).

(21) Comparison of whispered < ę̲h > and regular < ęh >

a whispered syllable plus < h > plus a regular syllable

sounds like

for comparision: a regular syllable plus < h > plus another regular syllable

sadejęhí:yohs make a good fire sadejehiyohs.mp3

sadechęí:yohs

wadęhi:⁷ it is stacked wadehi.mp3

deyagwi̲hsragę̲hé:yǫ: she is sighing deyagowihsrageheyo.mp3

deyagwi̲hsrakhé:yǫ:

agya⁷dagęhé:yǫ: I am physically weak, slow agyadageheyo.mp3

degahsdęhodá:gye⁷ mountain range; the Rockies degahsdehodagye.mp3

degahsdęhodá:gye⁷

gahsdę́ho:t a mountain gahsdehot.mp3

howę́hgę̲hę:⁷ it used to be his howegehe.mp3

howęhkę:⁷

agawęgę́hę:⁷ it used to be mine agawegehe.mp3

ęhsaję̲hǫhsgwáę:⁷* you will whisper esajehohsgwae.mp3

ęhsachę̲hǫhsgwáę:⁷

sajęhǫhsgwáę⁷ whisper! sajehohsgwae.mp3

The words in (22) illustrate the pronunciation of whispered < ǫ̲h > and < o̲h >. Notice that whispered ǫ̲h and o̲h can sound like a whispered ‘w’ (as in dwaknigǫ̲hí:yo:). (You can also hear a whispered ‘w’ sound after the < s > in swish, after the < t > in twenty, or after the < q > in queen; however, the [w] sound is spelled as a < u > in queen.) One interesting point to note is that < gǫ̲ha⁷ > in words such as g⁷anígǫ̲ha⁷ sound like [ kwɑ̃ ]; the [ ɑ̃ ] sound is the same nasal vowel as in the French word an year.

You’ll also notice that, as before, < d > sounds like [ t ], etc., and two syllables sound like one (as in ęhohdoga⁷dǫ̲hǫ́:gye⁷).

(22) Comparison of whispered < ǫ̲h, o̲h > and regular < ǫh, oh >

a whispered syllable plus < h > plus a regular syllable

sounds like

for comparision: a regular syllable plus < h > plus another regular syllable

ędwádro̲he:k we all (incl.) will gather together edwadrohek.mp3

ędwátrwe:k

ęhsróhe:k you will gather ehsrohek.mp3

asáhjo̲hai⁷ you did wash your hands asahjohae.mp3

asáhchwai⁷

sahjóhai: you wash your hands! sahjohae.mp3

ahshago̲hó:wi⁷ he told her asahgohowi.mp3

ahshakó:wi⁷

jo̲hǫná⁷da:t* one potato johonadat.mp3

chǫná⁷da:t

dwaknigǫ̲hí:yo: I am satisfied, peaceful dwaknigohiyo.mp3

dwaknikwí:yoú

desa⁷nigǫhí:yo: you are satisfied desanigohiyo.mp3

ahágǫ̲he:k he punched it ahagohek.mp3

ahákwe:k

segǫ́he:s you hit it all the time segohes.mp3

g⁷anígǫ̲ha⁷ the mind ganigoha.mp3

g⁷aníkwa⁷

ǫgwa⁷nigǫ́ha⁷ our mind ogwanigoha.mp3

sę⁷nigǫ̲hó⁷drǫh you are a worrier senigohodro.mp3

sę⁷nikó⁷drǫh

ęhsę⁷nigǫhó⁷drǫ:* you will worry, despair; you will be desperate esenigohodro.mp3

dwaknigǫ̲hę⁷ǫh I am in sorrow; I am sad dwaknigoheoh.mp3

dwaknikwę⁷ǫh

ęhohdoga⁷dǫ̲hǫ́:gye⁷ he will be growing along ehohdogadohogye.mp3

ęhohdoga⁷tǫ́:gye⁷

go̲hdogadǫ́hǫgye⁷ she is growing something gohdogadohogye.mp3

Finally, the words in (23) illustrate the pronunciation of whispered < a̲h >. The main points to notice are that, as before, < gr > sounds like [ kr ] (as in gra̲hé:t), etc., and two syllables can sound like one (as in dehsáhya̲hiht).

(23) Comparison of whispered < a̲h > and regular < ah >

ahi.mp3

a whispered syllable plus < h > plus a regular syllable

sounds like

for comparision: a regular syllable plus < h > plus another regular syllable

dehsáhya̲hiht cut up the fruit! dehsahyait.mp3

dehsáhyaiht

ahí:⁷ I thought, intended ahi.mp3

gra̲hé:t a tree grahet.mp3

kra̲é:t

agena̲háotra⁷ my hat agenahaotra.mp3

agenháotra⁷

anaháotra⁷ a hat anahaotra.mp3

By now, you’ve probably noticed several endings that are spelled the same, but which sound quite different. Here are the most common ones:

(24) Comparison of pronunciation and spelling of two endings

hadihǫwa⁷ge̲hó:nǫ⁷ sailors, etc. hadihowagehono.mp3

hahędagehó:nǫ⁷ farmer hahedagehono.mp3

ęhohdoga⁷dǫ̲hǫ́:gye⁷ he will be growing along ehohdogadohogye.mp3

go̲hdogadǫ́hǫgye⁷ she is growing something gohdogadohogye.mp3

howę́hgę̲hę:⁷ it used to be his howegehe.mp3

agawęgę́hę:⁷ it used to be mine agawegehe.mp3

The examples in (24) also illustrate the principle (in example 16) that words (or parts of words) should be spelled similarly if they have similar meanings. The words hadihǫwa⁷ge̲hó:nǫ⁷ and hahędagehó:nǫ⁷ both have the same ending (which means something like people of the or people who live in a certain place); the ending sounds quite different in these words, though, because the first syllable of the ending is whispered in hadihǫwa⁷ge̲hó:nǫ⁷ but not in hahędagehó:nǫ⁷. The words ęhohdoga⁷dǫ̲hǫ́:gye⁷ and go̲hdogadáhǫgye⁷ share two endings -dǫh-ǫgye⁷, which collectively mean go along doing something. The words howę́hgę̲hę:⁷ and agawęgę́hę:⁷ share the ending -gęhę:⁷, which means formerly or used to be.

Disappearing or hard-to-hear glottal stops

The words in the following examples were chosen to help you focus in on the pronunciation of syllables ending with a glottal stop < ⁷ >. You should listen to the following examples, especially to the bolded syllables.

(25) Disappearing versus non-disappearing glottal stops

disappearing

non-disappearing

g⁷adréhda⁷ car, vehicle gadrehda.mp3

ho⁷dréhda⁷ his car, vehicle hodrehda.mp3

s⁷anígǫ̲ha:t you are smart sanigohat.mp3

desa⁷nigǫ́ha:t you are stupid desanigohat.mp3

sg⁷anhǫ́hsa:t, jo⁷nháhsa:t one egg sganhohsat.mp3

o⁷nhǫ́hsa⁷ eggs onhohsa.mp3

ęhsad⁷enyę́:dę⁷ you will try esadenyede.mp3

sade⁷nyę́:dęh sample it! try it! sadenyede.mp3

Once you have compared the two types of syllables, you will notice that in the syllables with a disappearing glottal stop you can sometimes hear a trace of the glottal stop:

    -Sometimes the consonant before the glottal stop has a ‘popped’ release sound.

    -Sometimes the vowel after the glottal stop sounds ‘swallowed’.

You can see that syllables with a disappearing glottal stop often sound very different from the way they are spelled. More examples are described in the next section.

Two vowels with a glottal stop in between

The pronunciation of two vowels with a glottal stop < ⁷ > in between can be quite different from the spelling; in particular, the first vowel can sound ‘swallowed’. In fact, two vowels with a glottal stop < ⁷ > in between can sound more like a single vowel than two.

The words in the following examples were chosen to help you to focus in on the pronunciation of vowels with a glottal stop < ⁷ > in between. If you are using the html version of this manual, you can click on the buttons in any column in order to hear the sound.

(26) Comparison of syllables with a disappearing glottal stop and syllables with a non-disappearing glottal stop

syllable with a disappearing glottal stop, followed by a regular syllable

syllable with a non-disappearing glottal stop, followed by a regular syllable

deyoji̲⁷éhta: a stampede deyojiehda.mp3

ageg⁷éaji:h I have dark hair agetgeajih.mp3

hogé⁷aji:h he has dark hair hogeajih.mp3

sayę́de̲⁷ǫh you are really good at something sayedeo.mp3

ęsayędé⁷ǫhǫ:k you will be really good at it esayedeohok.mp3

ga̲⁷áhdra⁷ a basket gaahdra.mp3

agá⁷ahdra⁷ my basket agaahdra.mp3

After listening to the sounds, you will notice that:

    -It can be hard to hear the syllable with the disappearing glottal stop (as in ga̲⁷áhdra⁷).

    -Consonants in the syllable containing the disappearing glottal stop can sound different from the spelling: < g > can sound like [ k ] (as in ageg⁷éaji:h), and < d > can sound like [ t ] (as in sayę́de̲⁷ǫh).

Recall from section §8.2 that disappearing glottal stops are most likely to be heard in odd-numbered syllables ending with a glottal stop. However, this is not a hard and fast rule: sometimes there is no difference between the pronunciation of odd-numbered and even-numbered syllables ending with a glottal stop. For example, the pronunciation of the syllable
< rę⁷> in hodidrę⁷í:ga:⁷ and odrę⁷í:ga:⁷ is identical, even though the syllable < rę⁷ > is odd-numbered in the case of hodidrę⁷í:ga:⁷, and even-numbered in the case of odrę⁷í:ga:⁷. Here are some more examples:

(27) No disappearing glottal stops, even in odd-numbered syllables

hodidrę⁷í:ga:⁷ painted turtles hodidreiga.mp3

odrę⁷í:ga:⁷* painted turtle odreiga.mp3

ęhsetsgę́⁷ęda̲hgo⁷ you will remove seeds ehsetsgeehdahgo.mp3

otsgę́⁷ę:⁷ peach pit otsgee.mp3

gyohnegę́⁷ǫh* falling water gyohnegeoh.mp3

heyohnegę́⁷ǫh falling water heyohnegeoh.mp3

hotgǫhstǫ⁷ę́hta⁷ he is shaving hotgohstoehta.mp3

ahotgǫ̲hstǫ́⁷ęht he shaved ahotgohstoeht.mp3

hadihnyǫ⁷ǫhsrá:tęhs* ironworkers, iron climbers hadihnyoohsratehs.mp3

ga̲hnyǫ́⁷ǫhsra⁷ iron, steel gahnyoohsra.mp3

So far, we’ve looked at Cayuga consonant and vowel pronunciation. Now we’ll discuss which vowel gets the accent marker < ´ > and the lengthener.

Accent and length

Most words have an accented vowel — a vowel which is pronounced with higher pitch. (Some shorter words have no accented vowel; these words are described later.)

The ‘C’ and ‘D’ notes on a musical scale are examples of what pitch is; the difference between ‘C’ and ‘D’ is a difference in pitch, and ‘D’ has a higher pitch than ‘C’.

The pronunciation marker or diacritic for an accented vowel is the acute accent mark  < ´ >, also sometimes called a stress point.

This section describes where to put the accent mark, or where accent occurs in words. The description only applies to situations where the speaker is making a fairly neutral statement — the speaker isn’t asking a question, isn’t too emotional, isn’t emphasizing the word, etc. You can find more information about non-neutral statements in a later section.

Here are some rules of thumb about accent placement. (Examples are provided later.)

(28) Rules of thumb for accent placement

a.         Words which are pronounced alone or “in isolation” have a non-final accent: accent does not fall on the final syllable;

b.         Words the end of a phrase also have a non-final accent;

c.         Words which are not at the end of a phrase have a final accent: accent is on the final syllable of the word.

‘Non-final accent’ means an accent that falls on the second-last vowel, the third-last vowel, or even on the fourth vowel from the end of the word. Some examples are provided in (29), and the rules for non-final accent placement are described in detail in a later section.

(29) Examples of non-final accent placement

a.         Accent falls on the vowel that is second from the end

           hahawi.mp3 hahá:wi⁷ he is carrying it

           hodawen.mp3 hodá:wę⁷ he has swum

           haheha.mp3 hahé:ha⁷ he sets it

b.         Accent falls on the vowel that is third from the end

           ohneganohs.mp3 ohnéganohs water

           dewahonhdes.mp3 dewáhǫhde:s deer

          sayadodrohgwaonihs.mp3 saya⁷dodrǫhgwáǫnihs you are always shivering

c.         Accent can sometimes fall on the vowel that is fourth from the end; in the following word, it falls on the third-to-last vowel, but in this word, it has the potential to fall on the fourth-to-last vowel, depending on the speaker.

           ganagaendahkwa_no_retract.mp3 ganagaéda̲hkwa⁷ a whistle

 

‘Final accent’ means that accent is on the last vowel of the word. Examples (30) and (31) illustrate the difference between final and non-final accent. In example (30), the accent is on the final vowel of aga:tǫ:dé⁷ because this word is not at the end of the phrase.

(30) Final accent placement

        agatonde_tson.mp3 Aga:tǫ:dé⁷ tsǫ:, tę⁷ ni:⁷ degé:gę:⁷.

        I just heard it, I didn’t see it.

In contrast, example (31) shows that the same word has a non-final accent (aga:tǫ́:de⁷) when it is at the end of a phrase.

(31) Non-final accent for words that are at the end of a phrase

      agatonde.mp3 Negitsǫ́: aga:tǫ́:de⁷ I just heard it

There are a few complications: for one, some words can have a final accent, but can’t have a non-final accent. Some examples are shown in (32): instead of having a non-final accent (an accent on the second-to-last vowel), these words can have no accent.

(32) Accentless words

a.         dasha.mp3 dasha: here, take this

b.         hahdos.mp3 hahdo:s he dives

However, the same words can have a final accent under certain conditions. For example, while the word ahsęh in (32) is accentless when it is pronounced alone, the same word has a final accent when it is not at the end of a phrase, as shown in (33). (Here, the phrase has just two words in it.)

(33) ahsenh_niwahsen.mp3 ahsę́h niwáhshę: thirty

Another complication for the description of accent placement is particles. (Particles are small words with only one vowel.) Normally, particles can be accented when they are pronounced in isolation, as shown in (34).

(34) Examples of particles, accented when pronounced in isolation

        ten.mp3 tę́⁷ not

        nii.mp3 ní:⁷ I, me

In contrast, groups of particles in a phrase tend to share one accent — that is, only one of the particles in a particle group has the accent. (For this reason, some Cayuga speakers sometimes spell particle groups as if they were one word, which is kind of like English speakers spelling cannot as one word).

To illustrate, the particle groups in (35), which have been taken out of their sentence contexts, contain three particles each. The particle tsǫ: is accented in (35.a) while the same particle tsǫ: is unaccented in (35.b). Basically, the particle group in (35.a) is accented as if it were a single word with final accent. In contrast, the particle group in (35.b) is accented just like a word with non-final accent: the only difference is that the particle groups in (35) contain several words (particles) each.

(35) Accent in particle groups

a.         Negitsǫ́:… it’s just that &hellip; (non-phrase-final particle group; consists of ne⁷ gi⁷ tsǫ:)

b.         gyę⁷nétsǫ:, … just that, … (phrase-final particle group; consists of gyę⁷ ne⁷ tsǫ:)

So, to summarize, there are basically two types of accent: final and non-final. The rule for final accent replacement is easy:

(36) Rule for final accent placement: accent the final vowel of words that are not at the end of a phrase.

In contrast, the rules for non-final accent placement are fairly complicated, since either the second-last, third-last, or fourth-last vowel can be accented. The rules are described in the following section.

Non-final accent placement

In this section, we’ll see not only where the accent mark goes, but also where the vowel lengthener goes: accented vowels — and vowels preceding the accented one — are sometimes long, and there are rules to describe this.

First of all, it’s important to consider the second-to-last vowel: most of the time, that vowel is accented, but not always. To find out if it is or not, we need to ask a few questions such as: is the second-to-last vowel even-numbered or odd-numbered? To find this out, we need to count from the beginning of the word: for example, the 2nd, 4th, 6th, etc., vowel from the beginning of the word is even-numbered.

Now, if the second-to-last vowel is even-numbered, it is accented. It’s that simple!

The rules for the lengthener are a bit more complicated, though. An even-numbered, second-to-last vowel will also have a lengthener, but only if it is followed by a consonant… as long as the consonant is not< h > or glottal stop < ⁷ >. This is beginning to sound complicated, so let’s use a decision-tree to figure out where to put the accent marker and the lengthener. (See 37.)

(37) Decision-tree for deciding where to put the accent mark and lengthener

The rules in example (37) work for most words, but there are several exceptions, which are described in the following sections.

Words without an accent

What happens if there is no third-to-last vowel to accent? In this case, the word is sometimes pronounced without any accent; at other times, the final vowel of such words is accented. Here are some examples and explanations.

(38) Accentless words

a.         dasha.mp3 dasha: here, take this The first vowel is second-to-last and odd-numbered. It is followed by a consonant cluster, < sh >, and so the third-to-last vowel should be accented. However, there is no third-to-last vowel, so this word is acc.

b.         hahdos.mp3 hahdo:s he dives The first vowel is second-to-last and odd-numbered. However, it is also the vowel < a > and so the third-to-last vowel should be accented instead. Since there is no third-to-last vowel, this word remains without accent.

(38) Words that can be accentless, or accented on the final vowel

a.         ohya_no_stress.mp3 ohya⁷ berries (no accent)

b.         ohya_final_stress.mp3 ohyá⁷ berries (final accent)

The vowel-to-be-accented is immediately preceded by another vowel

Here’s a small addition to the rules in (37): if the vowel-to-be-accented is immediately preceded by another vowel, then the accent shifts to that vowel. ‘Immediately preceded’ means that there is no consonant between the accented vowel and the vowel right before it. An example is provided in (39). 

(39) If the vowel that is normally accented according to the rules  in (37) is immediately preceded by another vowel, then the accent can shift to the preceding vowel (that is, the fourth-to-last vowel). In the following word, it falls on the third-to-last vowel, but in this word, it has the potential to fall on the fourth-to-last vowel, depending on the speaker.

        ganagaendahkwa_no_retract.mp3 ganagáeda̲hkwa⁷a whistle  The second-to-last, odd-numbered vowel < e > would normally be accented, but since it is immediately preceded by another vowel, < a > in this case, the < a > can be accented instead. (However, in this speaker's pronunciation, the third-to-last vowel is accented.)

Just plain exceptions

There are always exceptions to accent placement! Some common exceptions are listed in example (40). 

(40) Exceptions

a.         Vowels before the endings -k⁷ah and -s⁷ah are always accented and long (even when odd-numbered).

            ganonhsakah.mp3 ganǫhsá:k⁷ah beside the house

            ononhsatgisah.mp3 onǫhsatgí:s⁷ah an ugly house

b.         The first vowel of the ending -shǫ́:⁷ǫh /-sǫ́:⁷ǫh or -shǫ́:⁷ah / -sǫ́:⁷ah is always accented and long, even when odd-numbered.

            gwenihsooh.mp3 gwęni̲hshǫ́:⁷ǫh change (money)

c.         The vowels in some words are always accented and long, regardless of whether they are odd- or even-numbered, even if they are followed by < h > or < ⁷ >.

            knoha.mp3 knó:ha⁷ my mother

            haheha.mp3 hahé:ha⁷ he sets it

d.         The vowel < a > can sometimes be accented and lengthened even when it is odd-numbered, as long as it is followed by only one consonant; this is particularly true if
< a > is the first vowel of a two-vowel word.

            gayen.mp3 gá:yę⁷ it is lying there

            sawenh.mp3 sá:węh it is yours

Non-neutral statements

The rules (and exceptions) described earlier only apply to the way Cayuga speakers talk when they are making neutral statements. If speakers are being emphatic, or asking a question, etc., things can change. Here are some examples.

One type of exception has to do with emphasized words. As shown in (41), people often say do:gá⁷ with final accent, even when the word is by itself. (This is an exception to the rule in 28.a). Similarly, they might accent í:⁷ in the phrase Do: í:⁷ . In both cases, it seems that words that are emphasized can have a final accent.

 (41) Non-neutral statements (emphasis)

a.         doga_final_stress.mp3 Do:gá⁷ I don’t know

b.         do_ii.mp3 Do: í:⁷ Let me (do it)!

Another type of accent pattern can happen with questions. As shown in (42), “[ in questions ] the tone [or pitch] of voice is perfectly level, not falling at the end the way it does in statements.  This … is often the only difference between a statement and a question.” (Mithun and Henry 1984:27; emphasis added). Based on this description, we can say that words at the end of a question might not have any accent at all. (In contrast, recall from 28.b that such words would normally have a non-final accent.)

(42) Level pitch in questions (Mithun and Henry 1984:35; orthography modified)

a.

gaenho_dihsahdengyon.mp3 Gaę nhǫ́: disahdęgyǫ:?

Where do you come from?

b.

dehode_syasonh.mp3 Dę⁷ ho⁷dę́⁷ sya:sǫh?

What is your name?

c.

dehode_ensnegeha_no_accent.mp3 Dę⁷ ho⁷dę́⁷ ęhsnege̲ha⁷?

What will you drink?

However, in some questions, the final word is accented:

(43) Final accent (high pitch) in questions

a.

sadatenhs_gen_final_stress.mp3 Sadá:tehs gę́h?

Are you thirsty?

 

For further reference

If you know another Ǫgwehǫ́:weh language such as Mohawk, you will notice that Cayuga accent placement is more complicated than in Mohawk, where typically, the second-to-last vowel is accented. (There are exceptions in Mohawk, of course, but usually the third-to-last vowel is accented if the second-to-last isn’t.) This is one of the major differences between Mohawk and Cayuga. Another major difference is Cayuga’s whispered syllables and the syllables with disappearing glottal stops (see §8): glottal stops can disappear in Mohawk, but not in the same way as in Cayuga. If you want to learn more about the differences between Mohawk, Cayuga, Seneca, Oneida accent, etc., the following book is an excellent source:

Michelson, K. 1988. A comparative study of Lake-Iroquoian accent. Studies in Natural Language and Linguistic Theory. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.