Chapter One: History of Research © Michael Deal 2001
These collections of oyster and clam shells mixed with bones of fish, birds, and mammals, have not
yet been studied with the care they deserve. They are the collection of ages, and would well reward
a thorough investigation. (Gilpin 1874:227).
Gilpin was referring to the numerous prehistoric shell midden deposits around the coasts of the Maritime Provinces as "the collection of ages," but we might extend this expression to all prehistoric cultural deposits in the region. These deposits began to receive serious scrutiny towards the end of the nineteenth century. However, European interest in aboriginal material culture began as soon as contact was made between the two cultures. Several early explorers brought captives and their artifacts back to Europe (Dickason 1997; Quinn 1981), and many modern and prehistoric native items ended up in European museum collections. The European visitors and early settlers had little understanding of the time depth of native occupation of the Americas. Historical questions tended to focus on who the native inhabitants were and where they had originated (Willey and Sabloff 1974). Eventually, most scholars accepted that they were descended from northeastern Asian populations that had migrated across a land bridge to Alaska during the last ice age. Once it was established that the earth was much older than the 4000 plus years argued by Biblical scholars, it was also possible to speculate on how long ago the original migrations might have taken place. In the early twentieth century, scholars were still writing about the earliest inhabitants of this region as if they had arrived only a few generations before the Europeans. Dixon (1914:66-70) lumped together artifacts from the entire prehistoric sequence without consideration of when they were manufactured and used. Later professional archaeologists used relative dating techniques based on changing fads in pottery decoration, until the development of the radiocarbon dating technique in the late 1940s gave archaeologists everywhere a new appreciation of the chronological relationships of prehistoric cultures.
Trigger (1989:69) notes that in North America before the late eighteenth century, few collections of artifacts had been recovered from prehistoric sites, and rock carvings and paintings were generally considered to be made by modern native peoples. From the period of initial settlement of the Maritimes in 1604 until the early nineteenth century, a few local private collections had been amassed. As is the case today, some collections were merely a few artifacts discovered on the collector's own property while ploughing a field or digging a cellar. Other collectors were more ambitious and would visit and dig up many sites. In his 1841 account on the New Brunswick Maliseet and Mik'maq and their settlements, Moses Perley reported that the archaeological site at Meductic was a popular source of stone tools for local collectors (Hamilton and Spray 1977:84). Some of the materials from early accumulations have been incorporated into provincial collections, but much of the information on where they were found has been lost.
The history of archaeological research for the Maritime Provinces is outlined below in three stages, namely, the Naturalist Period (1800 to 1912), the Early Professional Period (1913 to 1959) and the Recent Professional Period (1960 to Present). These headings roughly correspond to developmental stages identified by Willey and Sabloff (1974) for the United States. The first two stages are characterized by small surges of research separated by long periods of relative inactivity. Sanger (1979:12) attributes the slow growth of archaeological research in Maritime Provinces, as well as the state of Maine, primarily to the economic state of the region, where it has always been difficult to justify the expense of archaeological field work. Other factors that inhibit field work are the difficult terrain, harsh climate, and the poor preservation of archaeological materials due to acidic soils.
Naturalist Period (1800-1912)
In the Maritimes, Piers (1915a) refers to the few researchers in natural history during the early part of the nineteenth century as "pioneer naturalists." These were generally financially secure men who had time to devote to a wide range of academic pursuits, which often included geology, zoology, botany, ethnology, and archaeology. One of the pioneering figures of this period was Abraham Gesner. Gesner was primarily interested in geology, but he also built a collection of prehistoric artifacts. In fact, he was responsible for the first official public display of prehistoric material culture at Gesner's Museum of Natural History, which eventually formed the core of the prehistoric collection of the New Brunswick Museum (see Vignette 1). These materials had been acquired in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, beginning as early as 1831.
Native material culture is often mentioned in Gesner's writings. In his volume on Nova Scotia mineralogy, he reported that a skeleton of a native hunter and his implements had been recovered at the gypsum quarries near Windsor, Nova Scotia, and were preserved in a museum at nearby King's College (Gesner 1836:82). Unfortunately, the human remains were later destroyed in a fire at the College (Garlie 1992:19). In a later report, on the geology of Prince Edward Island, he describes a collection of artifacts made by Alexander Leslie from the Souris area, which consisted of "axes, spears and arrow points, and rude pots made of stone -- barbed fish bones."(Gesner 1847:7). According to Gesner, the arrow heads were made from feldspar, agate, hornstone and jasper. The feldspars were said to be identical to those found at Labrador, and may refer to the metacherts from Ramah Bay, while the agates were said to be similar to those from the Bay of Fundy area (Gesner 1847:7). Gesner suggested that the materials were brought in from those places, since they did not occur naturally on the island. In the same report, Gesner (1847:9-10) also noted Indian shell middens in the Rustico area and an extensive shell midden site on the south side of Malpeque Bay. While Gesner was obviously interested in native material culture, he did not seem to be concerned with the preservation of archaeological sites. He suggested that the shells from prehistoric middens, when burned and ground, and mixed with peat, made a valuable compost for farming (Gesner 1847:20).
The earliest systematic excavations of prehistoric sites in the Maritime Provinces were conducted by local naturalist groups. Two important naturalist societies were incorporated in 1862, namely, the Nova Scotian Institute of Science and the Natural History Society of New Brunswick (Connolly 1977). The first reported excavation was undertaken by a group from the Nova Scotian Institute of Science on the 11th of June, 1863, at a large shell midden at Frostfish Cove, near French Village, in St. Margaret's Bay, followed by at similar excursion to Cole Harbour the following year (Ambrose 1867; Gilpin 1874; Gossip 1867; Jones 1864). A return trip to St. Margaret's Bay was planned for 1970, but had to be canceled (Fergusson 1963:18). Interest in shell middens was stimulated by the publication of an English translation of Morlot's review of advances in European archaeology, including quite sophisticated analyses of Danish shell middens (or kjoekkenmoeddinger), which came to serve as a guide for North American explorations (Morlot 1861:291-304). Morlot's paper also influenced early work in New England (e.g., Rau 1865; Wyman 1868). Many scientists had believed that the North American shell middens were natural deposits, and as early as the seventeenth century, settlers were excavating the middens to make lime (Trigger 1986:xi). This was also done in parts of Nova Scotia up until late in the twentieth century, even though it was widely known that the shell deposits were cultural. Farmers in the Tatamagouche area even used special scoop attachments for mining the middens along the Barachois (Deal 1996).
The Frostfish Cove midden excavation was typical of the period. The midden was composed primarily of quahog (Mercenaria mercenaria) and soft shell clam (Mya arenaria), with smaller amounts of scallop (Phocapecten magellanicus), boatshell (Crepidula fornicata), and blue mussel (Mytilus edulis). It covered an area of about 322 m2, and was over 50 cm deep. According to Jones (1864:370), it consisted of a "layer of compact shells, perfect and imperfect, in which lie bones of animals and birds, flint and quartz arrow and spear heads, large and small teeth, and broken pieces of very roughly made pottery, bearing evident traces of attempt at ornament." At the bottom of the midden, Jones also noted fire-altered stones and charcoal, and a distinct layer of black soil about 5 cm thick, overlaying a layer of sand about the same thickness. Sanger (1987:115) reports that layers of gravel and beach sand and charcoal stained floors are often associated with house deposits, so it is quite possible that this group encountered a prehistoric dwelling. The excavators also identified faunal elements of moose (Alces alces), black bear (Ursus americana), beaver (Castor canadensis), and porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum), and noted the presence of several unidentified bird species and two or three species of fish. The latter included opercular spines of haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus).
In Piers' (1915a:cvi) biographies of the most prominent naturalists from Nova Scotia, only the Rev. George Patterson is described as an archaeologist. Patterson had written an important history of Pictou County (1877), which included detailed information on his archaeological explorations of shell middens in Merigomish Harbour. He joined the Nova Scotian Institute of science in 1878, and later published a paper on a collection of stone tools that he had donated to Dalhousie University (Patterson 1890, also 1883). The famous geologist, John Dawson, even gave a description of "pre-historic man" in his work on the Maritimes (1878:41-46, and Supplement pp. 18-19). His own collection included materials from what appears to be a protohistoric burial from Merigomish Harbour (Dawson 1878:45-46). Other Nova Scotian naturalists of this period focused on specific classes of material culture or attempted to describe large collections. A number of reports concerned pottery (DesBrisay 1879; Honeyman 1879) or stone tools and quarry sites (Duns 1880; Miller 1887). Piers (1890, 1895) himself was developing a classification system for the artifact collections in Nova Scotia. In later paper, Piers (1915b:110-111) came to the surprising conclusion that the prehistoric inhabitants of Nova Scotia had been Eskimos who were later replaced by Algonquian peoples.
The first archaeological excavations in New Brunswick where conducted by Spencer F. Baird, a zoologist associated with the Smithsonian Institution. Baird investigated several prehistoric shell midden sites in Charlotte County between 1868 and 1872, while on vacation or conducting fisheries related research. These sites were in Passamaquoddy Bay, including Oak Bay, St. Andrews, Digdeguash, Pocologan, Frye's Island, the Bliss Islands, and Grand Manan. Black (1995:6) notes that Baird's (1882) report includes a detailed description of the stratrigraphy of the Simpson's Farm shellmidden in Oak Bay. Yet, like most shell midden excavations of the nineteenth century, there was no attempt to associate the various layers with cultural change over time (Trigger 1986:xv). Most of Baird's work was done in 1869 while visiting his friend, the ornithologist George A. Boardman. Although at first reluctant, Boardman was eventually drawn into Baird's shell midden explorations. In a letter to Baird he refers to the problem of coastal erosion on prehistoric coastal sites:
"I am glad you came when you did to see the heaps for it will not be very long before most of them will be washed away. The gales last fall probably destroyed dozens of them about the coast." (Boardman 1903:189-190).
In an 1870 report, James Fowler suggests that the lack of shell midden sites on the northeastern coasts of New Brunswick were due to the effects coastal erosion.
The Natural History Society of New Brunswick began archaeological research in earnest in the 1880s, through a series of summer camps sponsored by the Society. The best known project is the 1883 Bocabec Village excavation, which was reported on by George Matthew (see Vignette 2). However, the 1893 summer camp at French Lake is probably more typical of these outings:
In August the party, numbering about twenty-three, proceeded to French Lake, some by sail boat and some by steamer to McGowan's wharf, and thence by carriage to Lakeville Corner. Tents were erected and ten days were spent studying the surrounding country. Excursions were made in all directions, and very satisfactory results were obtained in archaeology and botany. The party secured many specimens of implements and weapons of the unknown people who, in the Pre-historic period, dwelt in that section of the province, and the additions thus made to the museum furnish good material for students of this most interesting subject. (Kain 1894:67)
The period of 1909 and 1913 was the most active for the Society, and most of their research was focussed on the Lakes Region of central New Brunswick. There had been a limited amount of survey and testing in the region during the late nineteenth century (Bailey 1883, 1887; Kain 1901, 1905; Matthew 1896, 1900; Matthew and Kain 1905). According to McIntosh (1911:363), the Society quadrupled its prehistoric collection between 1909 and 1911. This was accomplished through more intensive survey and testing of sites and donations of a few large private collections (McIntosh 1909, 1914). Several important sites were identified at this time on Savage Island, and at French, Maquapit, Grand, and Swan lakes. The Portebello River was also identified by McIntosh (1911:363) as an area of high aboriginal traffic, but only temporary camps, based on the abundance of lithics and lack of pottery collected. The survey was continued in 1913 along the Saint John River between Fredericton and French Village, and sites were visited at Savage Island, McDonald's Point and Indian Point (McIntosh 1913). There was comparatively little field work on the east coast of New Brunswick during this period. A protohistoric copper kettle burial was reported in the Tabusintac area (Smith 1886) and W. L. Goodwin (1893) produced a brief report on prehistoric sites in the Cape Tormentine area, including a possible lithic quarry on Jourmain Island.
William Ganong was also interested in the prehistoric period of New Brunswick, but he focused his research on the location of sites and portage routes (1899, 1913a,b, 1914), and even possible native pictographs (1904). His 1899 monograph on historic sites in New Brunswick included the first detailed inventory of prehistoric sites in the province, along with observations on why specific sites were chosen. Ganong's study combined information from archaeological field work, with surviving native place names and oral history.
The short-lived Natural History Society of Prince Edward Island (1889-1892) included archaeology as one of its subjects of inquiry (O'Grady 1993:11). While the group did not undertake excavations, they were aware of the presence of shell middens on the the island. The first professional excavation on the island was conducted by the prominent American archaeologist, Jessie W. Fewkes (Buchanan 1999:15; O'Grady 1993). Like Baird, Fewkes was affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution. While on vacation on the island in 1896, he was told of a shell midden on an island near Rustico, which he later described as consisting of a deposit of oyster and cham shells measuring 250 m2 in size and 25 cm deep. His less than meticulous trenching of the midden was reported the same year in the American Antiquarian (Fewkes1896). The more intriguing finds included two stone celts, a copper bead, and a toggling harpoon point fashioned from walrus tusk. John Newson, the proprietor of the Seaside Hotel where Fewkes stayed, was probably his main informant and collaborator. When the Natural History Society was re-organized in 1899, John Newson was the new president and the name was changed to the Natural History and Antiquarian Society (Watson 1899a). The first annual outing of the included visits to the Mi'kmaq encampment at Rocky Point and the ruins of Fort La Joie (Watson 1899b). Newson exhibited some projectile points and the tooth and claw of bear from the Rustico site at a meeting in November 1901 (Wake 1995:32).
Early Professional Period (1913-1960)
The period from 1913 to 1960 saw the first organized field work in the Maritime Provinces by professional archaeologists, yet it was generally a period of slow growth for the discipline, both here and overseas (Bintliff 1986). The years of political and social upheaval associated with the two world wars and the economic depression of the 1930s were partly responsible for this situation. Furthermore, up until the 1960s, there was only a handful of professional archaeologists in the country, who were assisted by a dedicated group of amateurs (Wright 1985:425). The hiring of Harlan I. Smith by the Archaeology Division of the Geological Survey of Canada in 1911, followed a year later by William J. Wintemberg, were of particular significance to the archaeology of this region. Wintemberg concentrated his research efforts on eastern Canada. According to Sanger (1979:12) the first two decades of the twentieth century were memorable due to the surveys of Warren K. Moorehead (1922) in northern Maine and southwestern New Brunswick in search of "Red Paint" burials and the Smith and Wintemberg (1929; Smith 1917) excavations in Nova Scotia in 1913. Smith and Wintemberg also surveyed much of the north coast of New Brunswick, the Northumberland Strait shore of Nova Scotia, from Pugwash to Merigomish, parts of the Atlantic coast of Prince Edward Island, and parts of the south shore of Nova Scotia (Wintemberg 1914). Excavation techniques were still not of a high standard, and featured the digging of deep trenches through shell middens. Concerning his work at the Eisenhauer shell midden, Wintemberg (1914:385) wrote "I spent some nine days, some days with as many as four assistants, excavating one of the largest, the Eisenhauer shell-heap, and secured five large boxes of specimens, all of which were aboriginal, and showed no signs of European influence." They also collected artifacts, and acquired some as gifts, and studied collections at Dalhousie University, the Nova Scotia Provincial Museum, and Natural History Society of New Brunswick. Wintemberg actually visited the Rustico shell midden on two occasions. During the 1913 survey, he surface-collected an unfinished pipe and adze blade. On his return in 1937, he dug test pits and collected several hundred artifacts, including a copper bead (O'Grady 1993:15).
During the last two weeks of July, 1914, Warren Moorehead conducted a canoe survey of the upper Saint John River area, from Edmonston to Meductic (Moorehead 1922:233-238). Moorehead's crew tested near a Maliseet village at the mouth of the Madawaska River, and native guides led him 50 km up the river in search of the source of a black "flint" used by prehistoric knappers. Later in the week, they sunk several hundred test pits within a 4 km radius of the mouth of the Tobique River and recovered some flakes and biface fragments from pits dug in the modern Maliseet village at Tobique. One of their guides, John Devoe, gave them a list of nine prehistoric sites between Tobique and Saint John. They tested at least two of these, at Woodstock and Meductic. Moorehead considered Meductic to be the largest and most extensive site they found in New Brunswick, and noted the private collection of a local farmer. His crew recovered hundreds of chipped stone artifacts and pottery fragments from tests and surface-collecting at this site.
Archaeological research in the region came to a virtual standstill between 1914 and the1950s. In Nova Scotia, Speck (1924) described a possible prehistoric slate human figurine found on the west bank of the Clyde River. In New Brunswick, archaeology was continued in the upper Saint John River area by avocational archaeologists (e.g., Adney 1933; Clarke 1968). In particular, George Clark built an extensive collection of prehistoric materials during his explorations on the Saint John, Tobique, and Miramichi rivers, much of which was put on public display in Woodstock. In the northeast, Gorham (1928) reported a protohistoric burial at Red Bank, on the Miramachi River, and two years later Wintemberg (1937) tested an early Woodland burial site in the same area. Wintemberg (1942:130-134) also made the first attempt to integrate the prehistoric ceramics of the Maritime Provinces into a broader North American scheme.
Sanger (1979:12-13) notes that field work sponsored by the Peabody Museum during the 1930s in northern Maine was extended into New Brunswick by Douglas Byers after World War II. In particular, survey work was resumed in Passamaquoddy Bay and along the upper Saint John River during the 1950s (Stoddard 1950). Stoddard also briefly visited southeastern New Brunswick during his 1950 survey and later conducted an excavation at the Graham site, an early historic Mi'kmaq dwelling in the Richibucto area (Stoddard and Dyson 1956).
J. Russell Harper (1956, 1957) excavated a Protohistoric buiral site at Portland Point, Saint John Harbour, under the auspices of the New Brunswick Museum. According to Sanger (1987:89), he may have also tested the McAleenan shell midden site, on Digdeguash Harbour in the mid-1950's. The Portland Point report included the description of a 1955 amateur excavation of another Protohistoric burial in Pictou, Nova Scotia. Harper conducted additional work at this site in 1956 (Harper 1957). The avocational archaeologist, Kenneth Hopps, opened a small museum on his property, where he exhibited materials from the excavation and even sold retyped and bound copies of Harper's 1957 report.
In 1957, John Erskine was doing botanical fieldwork for the Nova Scotia Provincial Museum in the Port Joli area. The author Thomas Raddall had explored a number of shell middens in the area and convinced Erskine (1998:4-5) that someone should record the location of these sites before they disappeared. Erskine tested nine sites in 1957 and went on to sample dozens more over the next ten years. As he began to work in earnest, he received encouragement and guidance from Douglas Byers, and produced several reports for the Provincial Museum (Erskine1958, 1959,1961).
The first conference on archaeological research in the Maritimes was held at Citadel Hill in Halifax, on October 31, 1959 (Anon. 1959). The meeting was chaired by Donald Crowdis, Curator of the Provincial Museum (1940-1965). Eighteen delegates were in attendance and reports were given by John S. Erskine, Jane McNeill, J. Russell Harper, H. A. Cameron, and Douglas Byers. Erskine reviewed previous research in the province and his three field seasons on shell midden sites in southwestern Nova Scotia. He pointed out that virtually nothing was known about the "pre-shell-heap" cultures in the province. McNeill reported on the condition of the Provincial Museum's collections of archaeological and ethnological materials, and noted that one prehistoric collection of 250 specimens seemed to be missing. Harper described his recent field work in New Brunswick and Pictou, Nova Scotia. Cameron offered to assist local archaeologists by providing air-photos of sites. Byers showed slides of his recent research in Maine and pointed out the similarity between materials recovered at sites in that area with those found in the Nova Scotia. In an afternoon panel discussion, many issues were debated, including the need to formulate legislation for the protection of archaeological sites, as well as the need for detailed sites surveys, salvage operations, the training of local archaeologists, and a suitable publication outlet. This meeting was a promising beginning, and plans were made to make it an annual event. Unfortunately, there as a lapse of 26 years before the next meeting would convene, with a new generation of archaeologists.
Modern Professional Period (1960-)
The 1959 Conference on Archaeology in Nova Scotia was a watershed in the history of archaeological research in the Maritimes. For the first time, local participants met and identified the problems they faced. The impact of the meeting was immediate. Erskine branched out to survey other parts of the province, and even visited New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. In 1962, he learned of the Paleoindian site at Debert and relayed the information to Byers (Erskine 1998:5). As a result, the first large scale professional excavation of a prehistoric site was conducted at Debert, which also involved a geological survey for the sources of the lithic materials found at the site (Borns 1966; Byers 1966; MacDonald 1966; Stuckenrath 1966). The project was conducted by Byers and received funding from the United States National Science Foundation and the Canadian and Nova Scotian Governments. George MacDonald's (1968) report on the site has become a classic publication in Paleoindian Research.
Since 1960, archaeology has expanded in four sectors all across Canada, namely, government, museum, university, and the private sector (Turnbull 1977). Early research in the 1960s was dominated by two large federal agencies, namely, the Archaeological Survey of Canada (National Museums of Canada), and the National Historic Sites Service of Parks Canada. The Archaeological Survey is responsible for all prehistoric research conducted by the Federal government, and primarily through the Atlantic Provinces Archaeologist. Only three individuals have served in this position, namely, Richard Pearson, David Sanger, and David Keenlyside. Parks Canada is responsible for research conducted at National Historic sites. The latter includes mostly historic sites, but a few prehistoric sites have been excavated by Parks Canada archaeologists (e.g., Wallace 1987). Today, the bulk of the prehistoric research is conducted through the auspices of provincial agencies. In Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, archaeology falls under the jurisdiction of the respective Departments of Education, and under the mandates of the Nova Scotia Museum, and in New Brunswick, under Archaeological Services, of the Heritage Branch of the provincial government. Brian Preston became the Curator of Archaeology in Nova Scotia in 1968, and Christopher J. Turnbull became the first Provincial Archaeological Archaeologist of New Brunswick in 1973. In Prince Edward Island, the responsibility for archaeology originally fell to the Director of Archives, for the Department of Education. Today archaeology is the mandate of the Director of the Culture, Heritage, Recreation and Sport Division, of the Department of Community and Cultural Affairs.
A single system of site designation has been adopted across the country (Bordon 1952), yet policies and responsibilities relating to archaeology still vary considerably (Foulkes et al. 1894). Over time legal provisions for the protection of archaeological sites have improved. In New Brunswick, the Historic Sites Protection Act (1976) became the guideline for the protection of sites. The act is invoked when a site is slated for protection, and a permit is then required before the site can be altered or excavated (Turnbull 1977:3). In 1980, the Nova Scotia Museum became responsible for prehistoric sites and material culture through the Special Places Protection Act, and Robert Ogilvie became the first Curator of Special Places. The act includes guidelines for archaeological survey and excavation and research involving collections. Prince Edward Island is in the process of revising its heritage policies, which currently fall under the Archaeological Sites Protection Act (1978). All three provinces have an Archaeology Advisory Board. The 1970s also saw the formation of the Council of Maritime Premiers, an interprovincial committee that sponsors and co-ordinates research across the three provinces (Davis 1998:158).
Funding for archaeological research was dramatically increased during the 1960s (Wright 1985:429). This resulted from increased budgets for universities, as well as both federal and provincial government agencies. Some research was funded by the National Research Council grants (1966-1969) and later the Canada Council (1967). In 1978, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada was formed out of the Canada Council and became a major sponsor of archaeological projects. The Council of Canadian Archaeologists was organized in 1966 as a lobbying group for issues concerning Canadian archaeology. Two years later the Canadian Archaeological Association (CAA) was established. The journal produced by the CAA, the Canadian Journal of Archaeology, is one of the major publication outlet for Canadian archaeology. Another important national publication medium is the Mercury Series of the Archaeological Survey of Canada. In New Brunswick, Archaeological Services publishes a Manuscripts in Archaeology series and a more polished memoir series. The Nova Scotia Museum publishes summaries of permit reports in their Curatorial Report series and produces the occasional special publication. There is no comparable publication source in Prince Edward Island, but several important popular archaeology articles have appeared in the Island Magazine. Publication is also part of the mandate of the Council of Maritime Premiers (e.g., Deal and Blair 1991). In recent years, a number of small independent publishers have produced popular volumes on archaeology and access to reports on recent research has been greatly enhanced by the Internet.
During the 1970's, full-time archaeologists were hired at two Nova Scotia universities, namely
Stephen Davis at Saint Mary's University and Ronald Nash at St. Francis Xavior, and Francis Stewart
taught part-time at the University of New Brunswick. The two Nova Scotian institutions were soon
providing locally trained archaeologists. A report of the Council of Maritime Premiers (MCAC 1978)
recommended the development of a basic curriculum in Maritime archaeology in the local universities,
but this was never fully implemented. Eventually, a full-time archaeologist was added to the faculty
of the University of New Brunswick, namely David Black, and Anna Sawicki taught archaeology on
a part-time basis at the University of Prince Edward Island. Memorial University of Newfoundland
began training archaeology graduate students in the 1970s, including some who were working in the
Maritimes, and more recently, MA students have come out of the University of New Brunswick
program. The author was added to the Memorial faculty in 1986, as a Maritime Provinces specialist.
Summer field schools have been offered periodically through these institutions since the mid 1970s.
Newly trained students generally sought work in provincial and federal museums and departments.
Today, more jobs are created in the private sector, including employment as staff members or
seasonal workers with a few large contracting companies (see Davis 1998:160). New Brunswick and
Nova Scotia both have active amateur archaeology societies, which include a variety of avocational
archaeologists, students and professionals. These groups have formal meetings, field trips, and guest
lecture series.
With a more formal infrastructure, archaeological field work in the region increased dramatically over the second half of the twentieth century, yet the work was unevenly distributed. In particular, coastal areas were targeted because of the treat of site destruction due to rising sea levels (Davis 1980, 1983; Simonson 1978). In New Brunswick, fieldwork has focussed on Passamaquoddy Bay and the Chiputneticook-St. Croix Drainage, the Tobique River area and Lakes Region of the Saint John River Drainage, and the Miramichi and Tracadie areas of the Northeast (see Deal 2001). Relatively little work has been done along the Bay of Fundy shore from Passamaquoddy Bay to the Minas Basin, the lower Saint John River area, and along the numerous river drainages of eastern and southeastern New Brunswick. In Nova Scotia research has focussed on the area around Halifax-Dartmouth, the South Shore, Lake Kejimkujik and Lake Rossignol, the western Minas Basin, the Shubenacadie Drainage, and portions of the Northumberland Strait shoreline (also see Davis 1998:158-159). Preston (1989, 1991) identified 10 areas of Nova Scotia that were poorly studied, including large portions of Guysborough County and Cape Breton Island. In Prince Edward Island, archaeological research has been concentrated on the large bays along the north Atlantic coast and the coast opposite Cape Breton Island (Buchanan 1999). Most of the southern and western shores have not been surveyed. Furthermore, the frequent recovery of artifacts off-shore by scallop draggers in the Bay of Fundy and off Prince Edward Island, indicate that many early sites are now deep under water (Keenlyside 1984; Stright 1990).
Close ties developed between archaeologists in Maine and the Maritimes during the 1970s and a series of informal meetings were held. The main objectives of these meetings was to discuss current developments in each area and to seek consensus on classification systems and terminology (Sanger 1973). The meetings were short-lived, yet there is a possibility that connections will be renewed by the Archaic workshop scheduled for October 2001, at the University of Maine. The Nova Scotia Museum initiated an annual workshop for professional archaeologists in 1985. These meetings have continued to this day and generally involve most of the archaeologists working in Nova Scotia and a few from elsewhere in the region. A wide range of provincial and national issues are addressed at these meetings (see Davis 1998:160).
Since the 1970s there has been a growing concern among native groups in North America over the recovery and treatment of prehistoric human remains and artifacts (Mackie 1995). In 1993, the Canadian Archaeological Association initiated discussions between archaeologists and native groups across the country for the purpose of drafting an agreement on the ethical conduct concerning aboriginal heritage and archaeological research (Nicholson et al.1996). In the Maritime Provinces, a series of meetings, workshops and/or talking circles were conducted. A number of universal concerns were recognized (after Allen 1996:19), including the need (1) to respect sacred sites, including burial places, (2) for more consultation and communication between the two group on heritage issues, (3) more aboriginal training and educational opportunities in the field of heritage studies, (4) for fuller aboriginal participation in heritage projects, (5) to respect oral traditions and aboriginal interpretations, especially during archaeological impact assessments, and (6) to report finds in a timely and understandable format. The resulting document is seen as a tentative statement of mutual concerns, which can be used to develop more specific local protocols (Allen 1996).
For the most part, this book will deal with research conducted since the late 1950s, since the advent of radiocarbon dating. However, earlier work will be included whenever possible. Modern native issues will also be addressed to the extent that they affect the practice of archaeology in the region. The chapters to follow include a brief overview of theory and method in regional prehistory and an updated reconstruction of the recognized prehistoric developmental periods based on current archaeological information.
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